The Conclusion of the Arcadia Conference, 1942

The Arcadia Conference convened in Washington, DC on December 22, 1941 – January 14, 1942, fifteen days after Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor, and Germany’s declaration of war on the U.S. It was the first in-person meeting between President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill since America’s official involvement in World War II. Accompanied by their top military advisors, the leaders intended to align Anglo-American strategy in the thick of an escalating global conflict.

The most significant outcome was the “Germany First” policy, prioritizing the defeat of Nazi Germany over Imperial Japan; despite intense pressure in the Pacific theater, it reflected a consensus that Germany’s collapse would fatally weaken Japan, and permit an overwhelming force to be redirected eastward. Military coordination was formalized by the creation of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, a joint U.S.-British body based in Washington, to direct Allied operations.

Arcadia set precedents for subsequent summits, inaugurated an unprecedented coalition that shaped Allied victory and postwar order. As Winston Churchill put it in a toast on New Year’s Day: “Here’s to 1942, here’s to a year of toil—a year of struggle and peril, and a long step forward towards victory. May we all come through safe and with honour.”

For more information, the Grateful American Book Prize recommends Andrew Roberts’ Churchill: Walking with Destiny.

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The Battle of New Orleans, 1815

The January 8, 1815, Battle of New Orleans was the last major scuffle in the War of 1812 between the United States and Britain. The Treaty of Ghent had ended the conflict on December 24, 1814, but because news traveled so slowly—prior to the invention of telegraph—neither side was aware that peace had already been negotiated.

British forces, fresh from victories in the Napoleonic Wars, planned to seize New Orleans, a vital port controlling access to the Mississippi River, and the recently acquired Louisiana Territory. A fleet under Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane transported approximately 8,000 seasoned troops commanded by Major General Sir Edward Pakenham to take the city and reshape the outcome.

Defending New Orleans was Major General Andrew Jackson, nicknamed “Old Hickory” for his toughness. When he arrived on December 1, 1814, Jackson hastily assembled an army of about 5,000.

The main skirmish was on Chalmette Plantation, five miles away. Jackson fortified a line along the Rodriguez Canal with earthworks, cotton bales, and artillery. On the foggy morning of January 8, the British launched a frontal assault across open ground. Poor planning plagued the attack: material arrived late, and a diversionary force on the Mississippi’s west bank failed to fully succeed.

American riflemen and cannon inflicted devastating fire. Pakenham was killed early, along with other senior officers, causing chaos. In under an hour, the British suffered more than 2,000 casualties (including 291 killed); American losses were about 13 and 58 wounded or missing.

The lopsided victory boosted American morale, smoothed out the earlier humiliation of Britain’s burning of Washington, propelled Jackson to national fame, ramped up his path to the presidency in 1828, restored unity and confidence in the young republic, and terminated armed conflicts between America and England.

For more information, the Grateful American Book Prize recommends Robert V. Remini’s The Battle of New Orleans.

Michael F. Bishop, a writer and historian, is the former executive director of the International Churchill Society and the Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Commission.

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History Matters is a feature courtesy of the Grateful American Book Prize, an annual award for high quality, 7th to 9th grade-level books dealing with important events and personalities in American history.